From Prohibition to Triumph: Coffee's Ottoman Odyssey
An Exploration of Coffee's Symbolic Resonance, Controversial Ascent, and Resilient Triumph Over Prohibition and Societal Upheaval in the Middle Eastern and Ottoman Realms
In the Middle East, coffee holds a myriad of symbolic meanings, each carefully woven into the fabric of social customs and traditions. When served to guests in Arab households, it becomes a vessel of hospitality and generosity, fostering a sense of warmth and welcome within the community. Yet, in moments of mourning, its bitterness serves as a poignant reflection of sorrow, offered solemnly to mourners at certain funerals.1 Such nuanced symbolism reflects the intricate relationship between coffee and the region's social psyche, highlighting its role as a communal elixir meant to be shared and savoured together. As we embark on this exploration, we delve into coffee's tumultuous history, from its prohibition to its triumphant emergence during the early modern period, seeking to unravel the complexities of its cultural significance.
To delve into the history of coffee is to inevitably explore the institutions that shaped its trajectory. Among these, coffeehouses emerge as pivotal players in the narrative, particularly within the context of the Ottoman Empire during the 16th century. These establishments, forged within the crucible of early Islamic culture, served as crucibles for the dissemination of coffee, offering an unprecedented social atmosphere that captivated patrons. However, this newfound popularity came with a double-edged sword. While coffeehouses facilitated the spread of the beverage, they also became arenas for heated debates among scholars, exposing coffee to the scrutiny of frustrated intellectuals. This contentious environment ultimately led to the prohibition of coffee, casting a shadow over its once innocent allure. Ironically, coffee's introduction to the Ottoman Empire is traced back to Sufis from Yemen, who initially embraced and celebrated its consumption.2 Despite the setbacks caused by prohibition, the resilient spirit of coffee persevered, finding ways to thrive amidst adversity.
The seemingly innocuous realm of coffeehouses was not without its controversies, chief among them being the squandering of time. Here, the populace indulged in idle chatter, gossip, and even puppet shows, extending their stay far beyond necessity. Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi (d. 1682) provides vivid accounts of such pastimes, particularly noting their prevalence during the nocturnal hours, which he seemed to relish without reservation.3 This newfound social hub supplanted traditional meeting places like mosques and shops, drawing scrutiny from vigilant detractors and casting a shadow of suspicion over both the institution and the beverage it served. Yet, on a darker note, the association with drug use further tainted the reputation of coffeehouses and the drink itself. In his renowned work, "The Balance of Truth" (Mīzān al-ḥaqq fī ikhtiyār al-aḥaqq ; ميزان الحق في اختيار الاحق), Ottoman intellectual and geographer Kâtip Çelebi (d. 1657) reflects on this issue, noting the allure of coffee to addicts who were "willing to die for a cup," among other sobering observations.4
The coffeehouses of yore were more than mere havens for idle chatter; they were arenas of societal defiance, where taboo activities thrived. From covert gambling to same-sex flirtatious exchanges, the whispered hush of faggotry, often involving the youthful servers, and even flamboyant displays of dance, these establishments embodied a spirit of hedonism. Naturally, such audacious behaviour caught the ire of religious authorities, who, fuelled by fervour, issued damning fatāwas against both the coffeehouses and their brew. These condemnations weren't isolated incidents but rather the culmination of protracted opposition campaigns spanning social, political, and even medical spheres. This relentless crusade culminated in recurring bans on coffeehouses, a trend persisting well into the modern era.
The resilience of coffee against these prolonged opposition campaigns is as intricate as the discourses of prohibition themselves, a multifaceted tapestry of economic, social, and personal dynamics. At a macroeconomic level, the coffee trade emerged as a beacon of profitability for merchants and even the state, offering a lifeline during a tumultuous period marked by economic woes stemming from Portuguese dominance in the Indian Ocean and the discovery of the New World.5 On a more intimate, societal scale, the public adamantly refused to relinquish the vibrant social atmosphere of coffeehouses in favour of more traditional forms of leisure. Coffee's unique allure, coupled with its swift integration into daily routines, rendered resistance futile and vindication inevitable. Furthermore, coffee's transformative influence on the concept of nighttime played a pivotal role in garnering support, with unexpected champions like Koca Sinan Paşa, a grand vizier who credited coffee for keeping him alert during nocturnal state affairs.6
The ascent of coffee was nothing short of revolutionary, its triumph woven into the fabric of changing global patterns of luxury consumption during the early modern period, as illuminated by numerous historical accounts.7 Yet, amidst the tumultuous struggle, coffee emerged victorious, a testament to its indomitable spirit. Setting aside the annals of history, we find solace in the enduring presence of coffee in our lives today. Beyond its profound social, economic, and cultural impacts on the tapestry of human history, coffee remains a cherished companion, infusing our peaceful mornings with a dose of joy and tranquility.
“Palestinian Social Customs and Traditions”, Institute for Middle East Understanding, Accessed December 12, 2023. https://imeu.org/article/social-customs-and-traditions
Vermani, Neha. "Spilling the beans: The Islamic history of coffee." Folger Shakespeare Library. Available at: https://www.folger.edu/blogs/shakespeare-and-beyond/islamic-history-of-coffee/ (Accessed 19 April 2024).
Kafadar, Cemal. How Dark is the History of the Night, p. 249.
Haji Khalifeh, and Geoffrey L. Lewis. The Balance of Truth, p. 60.
Faroqhi, Suraiya. Coffee and Spices, pp. 91-93.
Kafadar, Cemal. How Dark is the History of the Night, pp. 254-255. Furthermore, on page 252, the grand vizier, under the guise of offering a haven for relaxation, backs the coffeehouses that the Sultan sought to outlaw.
Karababa, Eminegül, and Güneş Işıksel. "Early Modern Ottoman Coffeehouse Culture," pp. 742-745.
Reference List
Faroqhi, Suraiya. Coffee and Spices, pp. 91-93.
Haji Khalifeh, and Geoffrey L. Lewis. The Balance of Truth, p. 60.
Institute for Middle East Understanding. Palestinian Social Customs and Traditions. Accessed April 12, 2024. Available at: https://imeu.org/article/social-customs-and-traditions
Karababa, Eminegül, and Güneş Işıksel. "Early Modern Ottoman Coffeehouse Culture," pp. 742-745.
Kafadar, Cemal. How Dark is the History of the Night, p. 249.
Kafadar, Cemal. How Dark is the History of the Night, pp. 254-255. Additionally, on page 252, the grand vizier, under the guise of offering a haven for relaxation, backs the coffeehouses that the Sultan sought to outlaw.
Vermani, Neha. "Spilling the beans: The Islamic history of coffee." Folger Shakespeare Library. Available at: https://www.folger.edu/blogs/shakespeare-and-beyond/islamic-history-of-coffee/ (Accessed 19 April 2024).